Northern Theater after Saratoga (1778–1781)
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On October 17, 1777, British General John Burgoyne surrendered his joint British, Canadian, and Hessian and Brunswicker forces to patriot General Horatio Gates near Saratoga, New York. Over 6,000 soldiers, the number placed by one historian is 6,222, became captives of war. Under the terms of the convention agreed upon by Burgoyne and Gates, the vanquished army was to march to Boston, Massachusetts, board British ships, and sail to England, to await formal exchange and to not participate in the war in America further. When news reached the Continental Congress of this concession, that political body demanded a complete list of the troops surrendered to ensure the terms of the convention was to be upheld. When this was not forthcoming by the British, Congress reacted by vowing to not adhere to the stipulations of the convention. Burgoyne’s forces would not head back to Great Britain to await an exchange that year. Instead, these men were to be confined in camps both in New England and Virginia for the duration of the war. This force came to be called the Convention Army. There were about 5,900 officers and soldiers (3,400 British and 2,500 German) and 600 women and children who surrendered that day and were subject to the terms of the Articles of Convention Between Lieutenant-General Burgoyne and Major General Gates. Most American royalists, Canadiens, Royal Navy personnel, and American refugees were permitted to go to Canada; American Indians and First Nations people were already on their way north, having departed prior to the surrender. After Lieutenant General John Burgoyne surrendered his army following the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 France entered the war, recognizing the United States and entering into a military alliance.
France dispatched a fleet and army across the Atlantic to aid the Americans fighting for independence, in addition to pursuing military operations in the Caribbean and the East Indies. France also applied pressure on Spain to enter the war; although this did not happen until 1779, Spanish actions in other theaters further stretched British military resources. These strategic changes forced the British to shift their attention away from North America, moving troops, ships and resources to defend the West Indies, India and other colonial possessions, as well as guarding against the threat of a French invasion of Great Britain itself. In North America, the British withdrew from Philadelphia in 1778, and made New York City the headquarters for the North American theater of war. They then embarked on a southern strategy, in which they sought to gain control over the colonies of Georgia, North and South Carolina, and Virginia, where they believed Loyalist sentiment to be strong. This activity formed the bulk of military activity in North America for the remainder of the war, but actions and forays occurred from British strongholds in Quebec, New York, Rhode Island, and Nova Scotia. The Americans had paid a steep price in this erroneously named Battle of Bunker Hill, with 140 killed, 271 wounded, and 30 captured, but the British had 226 dead and 828 wounded, an appalling casualty rate. Now the whole world knew that colonial militia could stand up to British regulars in battle.
By July, George Washington had arrived in Cambridge as the new American commander in chief. On 4 March 1776 he made the move the British had feared, placing cannon atop Dorchester Heights and beginning to bombard the city and the British fleet. On 17 March the British evacuated Boston. Attacks on Canada. As soon as hostilities began, colonials in the New England area began operations against Canada. They had suffered attacks from that direction over more than a century and they felt sure that Canada would serve as a staging area for the British army. After British General Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army at Yorktown, Virginia in October 1781, the United States once again had a boon of prisoners of war to trade with the British, and negotiations began in February 1782. Although nothing came of it, when Congress ratified the provisional war-ending peace treaty in April 1783, Washington was instructed to arrange their release. The dwindled remnants of the Convention Army, having spent over five years in captivity and amounting to about 1/6 of its original strength, was finally released. As for the five years’ worth of Convention Army deserters, where did they go? Thousands made their way back to British lines. Thousands of others decided to remain in America and start new lives. Some even joined the revolutionary cause and fought against their formed compatriots.
France dispatched a fleet and army across the Atlantic to aid the Americans fighting for independence, in addition to pursuing military operations in the Caribbean and the East Indies. France also applied pressure on Spain to enter the war; although this did not happen until 1779, Spanish actions in other theaters further stretched British military resources. These strategic changes forced the British to shift their attention away from North America, moving troops, ships and resources to defend the West Indies, India and other colonial possessions, as well as guarding against the threat of a French invasion of Great Britain itself. In North America, the British withdrew from Philadelphia in 1778, and made New York City the headquarters for the North American theater of war. They then embarked on a southern strategy, in which they sought to gain control over the colonies of Georgia, North and South Carolina, and Virginia, where they believed Loyalist sentiment to be strong. This activity formed the bulk of military activity in North America for the remainder of the war, but actions and forays occurred from British strongholds in Quebec, New York, Rhode Island, and Nova Scotia. The Americans had paid a steep price in this erroneously named Battle of Bunker Hill, with 140 killed, 271 wounded, and 30 captured, but the British had 226 dead and 828 wounded, an appalling casualty rate. Now the whole world knew that colonial militia could stand up to British regulars in battle.
By July, George Washington had arrived in Cambridge as the new American commander in chief. On 4 March 1776 he made the move the British had feared, placing cannon atop Dorchester Heights and beginning to bombard the city and the British fleet. On 17 March the British evacuated Boston. Attacks on Canada. As soon as hostilities began, colonials in the New England area began operations against Canada. They had suffered attacks from that direction over more than a century and they felt sure that Canada would serve as a staging area for the British army. After British General Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army at Yorktown, Virginia in October 1781, the United States once again had a boon of prisoners of war to trade with the British, and negotiations began in February 1782. Although nothing came of it, when Congress ratified the provisional war-ending peace treaty in April 1783, Washington was instructed to arrange their release. The dwindled remnants of the Convention Army, having spent over five years in captivity and amounting to about 1/6 of its original strength, was finally released. As for the five years’ worth of Convention Army deserters, where did they go? Thousands made their way back to British lines. Thousands of others decided to remain in America and start new lives. Some even joined the revolutionary cause and fought against their formed compatriots.
